As with many things when it comes to kids, there’s no one-size-fits-all answer to most questions about feeding newborns. But there are some reassuring guidelines that can help you feel more confident about your baby’s feeding needs.

We spoke to Dr. Philippa Kaye, a London-based GP who specialises in paediatrics and gynaecology, about all things newborn and feeding. Here’s how often to feed your baby, how long feeds should last and what to do if things don’t go to plan.

How much should you feed a newborn?

Newborns have tiny stomachs, because until they were born, they had all the nutrition they needed delivered via the placenta, so their stomachs aren’t used to receiving milk.

This means that for the first couple of weeks, their stomachs are expanding as they get used to drinking and processing milk.

“On the day that your baby is born the stomach has the capacity to hold around 5-7mls of liquid, that is about the size of a cherry, but by the end of the first week it can hold around 45-60mls and it continues to grow, increasing to around 80-150mls by a month,” Philippa says.

“This means that you will need to feed your baby little and often,” she says.

This could mean every hour for the first few days, although “as they get bigger they will need to feed less frequently,” she says.

The NHS says that babies should feed at least eight to 12 times a day each day for the first few weeks, which "tends to amount to feeding every 2-3hrs,” Philippa says.

How to know when you should feed a newborn

The current guidance for breastfeeding mums in the UK is to ‘feed on demand.’ This means that you feed your baby when they show that they are hungry, rather than on a schedule.

“Bottle fed babies can also be fed on demand, though breast fed babies tend to need to feed more frequently,” Philippa says.

Signs that your newborn is hungry can include:

• Rooting — meaning that they are looking for a teat or bottle, and may turn their head and open their mouth
• Getting more restless and wriggling
• Smacking their lips/opening and closing their mouth
• Sucking on their hands or fists — or anything else they can find
• Moving their eyes around

Crying babies are harder to feed, so it’s best to try to figure out your baby’s hunger signs so that you can feed them before they start crying.

The NHS says that you can also feed your newborn when your breasts feel full or if you just want to have a cuddle.

How long should newborn feeding sessions last?

“As with most things with babies it will depend, but breastfeeding tends to take somewhere between about 10 and 40 minutes at a time,” Philippa says.

“Depending on the size of the bottle teat (start with the smallest size) bottle feeding is often quicker.”

Babies tend to stop feeding when they are full — for bottle-fed babies, don’t force them to finish a bottle. For breastfed babies, the NHS says it isn’t possible to overfeed them.

Establishing a newborn feeding routine

“If you are feeding on demand it can be difficult to establish a routine, at least initially,” Philippa says. “As long as you are ok with this, and it isn’t impacting on your mental or physical health, then it is fine to be led by your baby.”

Following a schedule can also increase the risk of overfeeding, since the baby isn’t only feeding when they are hungry.

However, some people do find baby-led feeding difficult, so try to establish a routine. If this is the case, Philippa says: “Remember that any routine will need to change as they grow and get older. While their stomachs will continue to get bigger and be able to hold more milk, there may be times when they want/need more milk than others, for example during growth spurts, and times when they seem less hungry.”

How to tell if your newborn is eating enough

“Babies’ needs are constantly changing as they grow and develop, so it can be hard to tell if they are eating enough,” Philippa says. “If you are breast feeding it is also more difficult as you can’t tell exactly how much they are drinking – though you don't need to.”

If your baby is feeding well, they are probably getting enough milk. Here are a few signs a baby is getting enough milk during a feed:

• You can see and hear them swallowing
• They come off the teat on their own when they are finished
• They are calm during a feed, and seem satisfied afterwards
• Their mouth is moist after a feed

Some other signs that a newborn is feeding well include:

• They are steadily gaining weight after the first two weeks. “It is normal for baby’s weight to drop a little bit from the birth weight in the first few days of life, but if it drops significantly, or doesn’t return to normal then you may be advised to seek medical help to ensure that they baby isn’t becoming dehydrated and unwell,” Philippa says.
• They have an appropriate number of wet nappies for their age (i.e. two or three wet nappies for the first few days, and then at least six wet nappies every 24 hours from five days old and onwards)
• They seem healthy and alert when awake

What should you do if you’re worried about how your newborn is feeding?

Many newborn feeding problems new mums might have in the first few days and weeks can be sorted out.

Philippa says: “In the first few days at home you will be visited by the community midwife, who as part of the visit, will weigh your baby and ask about feeding.

“Once you are discharged from the midwife you will be seen by your health visitor and the baby weighed again, and again at the six-to-eight-week health check. There may also be local drop in baby weighing clinics where you can have your baby weighed and ask for support. “

But if you are concerned about how your baby is feeding, or you have any questions, Philippa says it’s always best to ask for medical advice.

“If you have any questions or concerns please seek medical advice. Remember your midwife and health visitor are also a source of information and support, there may be a local breastfeeding advisor and as always you can see your GP,” she says.

The NHS also has a digital tool for new parents called Breastfeeding Friend, which offers practical information and advice on breastfeeding that is available all day, every day. It can be accessed through Amazon Alexa, Facebook Messenger or Google Home.

Read more:

• Breast engorgement during breastfeeding: what causes it and how to relieve it
• How to express breastmilk – and when
• How to hold your baby when you're bottle-feeding

Even if you've done your research into feeding before baby's birth, when dealing with the after effects of giving birth and lots of sleepless nights, it can be hard to remember exactly how much and how often you need to feed your baby if you've decided to bottle feed.

To help keep things simple and reassure you that you're doing a great job, we've answered all your burning questions about formula feeding a newborn baby, including how much milk should a newborn drink (with a handy newborn feeding chart) so you can be sure your baby is having the right amount of formula milk for their age.

We've also included advice for helping you know the signs that your baby is feeding well and how to tell when they're full, plus what to do if you're worried about your baby's feeding or weight gain.

How much milk should a newborn drink?

When you're breastfeeding it's impossible to know how much your baby is ingesting, but when you're filling a bottle with formula it's a much more exact science and you can keep track of how many millilitres (or ounces) of milk your baby is consuming. This has its positives – you can see that your baby is feeding well (or not, in which case you can seek medical help) as well as negatives – some parents may become fixated on the amount of formula in the chart rather than responding to their baby's individual feeding needs.

Every baby is different depending on when they were born (premature, on time or late), their weight at birth, and any other medical or genetic factors, However most newborns follow a similar and predictable feeding schedule, which you'll find in our chart below. According to the NHS, the general rule is to give your baby 150ml - 200ml per kilo of their weight a day until they're 6 months old. So if your baby weighs 4kg (around 8lbs 13oz) they will need between 600ml and 800ml of formula milk per 24 hour period.

It's important to remember that newborns' stomachs are tiny in the first few days of life and you only need to give them very small amounts of formula – starting with a bottle containing 60 to 90 millilitres (2- to 3-ounces) of formula every 2 to 3 hours. Depending on the size of your baby they may not manage to drink the full bottle at this stage and it's important to respond to their hunger cues rather than make them wait for a bottle at exact intervals.

A newborn baby's tummy is about the size of a cherry at birth (and can take 5 - 7ml of colostrum) and after a week will have grown slightly to about the size of an apricot with the ability to hold around 45 - 60ml of milk. At 4 weeks, baby's tummy is around the size of a large egg and they can fit about 80 - 150ml (3 - 5 ounces) of formula or breast milk inside it at one time.

In general, a newborn baby should be consuming (however it can vary depending on baby's size and individual needs):

Sixty - 90 millilitres every 2-3 hours if they're newborn, around 90 - 120ml every 2-3 hours when they're a month old,  120 - 150 millilitres every 3-4 hours when they're 2 months old, 120 - 210 every 4-5 hours at 4 months and around 200ml at every feed when 6+ months old depending on how many solids they are consuming.

Our newborn feeding chart outlines how many bottles you can expect this to be and the average total daily amount per age.

*Please note this chart is for general guidance only and parents should work out the amount their baby needs using the NHS guidelines of 150ml - 200ml per kilo of their weight a day or advice from their GP or health advisor. 

How Often Should Your Newborn Feed on Formula?

A newborn baby should be fed on demand, which means you should respond to their hunger cues (usually crying, but can include rooting or sucking their fists) as often as they make them. This means you might be feeding your baby up to 12 times a day or as little as 8 times depending on their individual needs, their weight and how and when they were born.

In the first week your baby should be feeding around every 2-3 hours and they may only take small amounts of formula even if offered more. Often breastfed babies need feeding more frequently, while bottle fed babies tend to go for longer spells at an earlier age. If your baby isn't waking instinctively in the night every 3-4 hours as a newborn you will need to gentle encourage them to wake and feed.

Once your baby gets to around 3 - 6 months of age it's fine for them to go for much longer stretches at night without a feed (around 6 hours) although they will need more frequent feeds during the day.

Our formula feeding chart above shows on average how many feeds a baby needs of formula per day by their age as well as what this looks like in hourly intervals. However, it's important to remember each baby is different and your babies needs may not fit neatly in these parameters.

How do I know if my baby is getting enough formula?

All babies tend to lose weight in the first 48 hours or so. Anything under 10 percent of body weight is considered normal. So in the first week don't panic if baby weight isn't going up. However to help reassure you in the weeks that come there are some key signs that will help you know if your baby is drinking enough milk (for babies up to 6 weeks):

• Around 6-8 wet nappies a day
• Some dirty nappies but the number will hugely vary – stools should be frequent and soft
• Your baby settles well after a feed and seems calm and happy
• Managing to go short stretches between feeds (this varies but is usually around 2-3 hours)

You can also get your baby weighed at your local clinic and the health visitor will be able to reassure you that your baby is getting enough, or if they aren't they can help you to find out why. A useful guide to keep an eye on yourself is the weight chart in your baby’s red book, which shows you how much weight your newborn is expected to gain.

How can I tell if my baby is full?

Babies might not be able to talk but they're brilliant at communicating their needs if you know the signs to look out for.

It's important to remember that babies know when they've had enough milk so be sure to trust them and not try and force them to drain an entire bottle just because you think they should have that particular amount. Overfeeding a baby may lead them to start ignoring their body's fullness cues.

Here are some of the signs that your baby has had enough formula milk:

• They turn away from the bottle
• They fall asleep while feeding*
• Starting to look around and clearly disinterested in feeding
• Relaxing their fingers, arms and/or legs
• Slowing their sucking down
• Crying if you try and put bottle in mouth

*This may only apply to slightly older newborns as some babies can be very sleepy in the first few weeks and need help staying awake long enough to feed adequately. If you newborn is sleepy and hasn't fed for a few hours you can try and encourage them to stay awake to feed by undressing them, wiping their forehead or feet with a damp clean cloth, talking to them or playing either their hands and feet.

Once you've had the all clear from your health visitor or GP that baby is gaining weight well, sleepiness while feeding it's fine to let baby fall asleep while feeding. Remember how much milk your baby consumes may change from day to day or week to week depending on whether they are going through a developmental or growth spurt, and these commonly happen around 7-14 days old, between 3-6 weeks, 4 months and 6 months. When your baby seems hungrier make sure to respond to their hunger cues and feed them on demand.

Pics: Getty 

Read more:

• How to make up a formula bottle 
• 12 of the best sterilisers for babies
• Best baby bottles suitable from birth

Q: "How do you take a baby off a nipple shield? I’ve been using one for 5 months and she still isn’t latching well without it?" Jessica

A: "Shields are covers which go over the nipple, meaning that the nipple is longer and firmer and some people find that they help their babies to achieve a good latch. But if used for long periods they can be difficult to wean off.  I would recommend that you get some support from a breastfeeding counsellor or expert. Some general advice though would be to try to wean from the nipple shield to directly feeding from the breast at the time of the day when your baby feeds the best.

"Try to have lots of skin to skin contact, as this may help them latch on.  You can try removing the shield after they have started feeding, or after the let down reflex has occurred so that they don’t have to work too hard to get the milk initially, or remove the shield when switching between breasts. Breastfeeding and weaning off nipple shields aren’t always easy so please ask for help and support!" Dr Philippa Kaye

Blocked duct dilemma

Q: "Can blocked milk ducts be avoided? And how do you remedy them when they do happen?" Lesley

A: "Milk ducts can become blocked during breastfeeding. What this means is that there can be a build up of milk from the gland which cannot be drained during breastfeeding.  A blocked duct can lead to a tender, red lump in the breast, and can also lead to mastitis.

"To try and treat the blocked duct keep feeding on that side, as this encourages the milk to flow and hopefully unplug the duct.  Using warm compresses on the breast before the feeds can be helpful, as can massaging the breast during feeds to try and treat the duct. You can even use an electric toothbrush or vibrator to try to massage the breast.

"If your breast becomes red, hot and tender, or if you become unwell you may have developed mastitis, an infection of the breast so please seek medical advice." Dr Philippa Kaye

Learning to latch

Q: "I’m pregnant with baby 2. When I had my daughter, she was premature and 4lb and struggled to latch so I pumped. Unfortunately I got mastitis and despite continuing to pump it killed my supply. I really want to breastfeed my next baby, so do you have any advice on how to either get him to successfully latch or a good pumping schedule that will allow me to build up a good stash to get him to at least 6 months on breast milk?" Laura 

A: "Breastfeeding is not as easy as it is sometimes made out! Both you and baby need to learn how to breastfeed, it takes time and practice and please ask for help and breastfeeding support if you need it.

"To try to get a good latch, firstly make yourself comfortable with plenty of cushions/pillows to help support you and the baby.  You hold baby close to your body, so that their nose is at the level of your nipple.  The rest of their body needs to be level with the baby’s body facing your body, as opposed to them twisting their head to the breast – hence the pillows to help give support!

"Now let your nipple brush their top lip, this will trigger a reflex where the baby opens their mouth wide and their chin comes up to touch the breast.  Aim to get as much of the breast as possible into the breast, not just the nipple.  When you look at the baby’s lips, more of the areola will be seen above the baby’s top lip than bottom and their lips will be turned outwards, rather like a fish.  A good latch will not be painful, but there might be a tugging sensation as they suck to trigger the let down of milk.  After feeding the nipple should look normal, not flat or pinched.

"Importantly, if the latch is painful, or you aren’t sure it is correct, then insert a clean finger into the corner of their mouth to break the suction between them and the breast so you can remove the breast comfortably. Mastitis can occur even with a good latch, so if you are concerned please see your doctor." Dr Philippa Kaye

Bedtime breastfeeding

Q: "I'm still breastfeeding my baby to sleep at night – any advice for how to wean them off?" Abbie

"Oh, the struggle of sleep is very real! Ideally, (and I know very well as a parent, that things are not always as they are written in the leaflet or book) you would put your baby down to sleep when they are relaxed and awake, as opposed to when they are sleeping.  This means that your baby will will learn to go to sleep themselves as opposed to in your arms, so when they stir in the night, and find themselves not in your arms, that they might drop off again. But I understand it isn’t always easy!

"If you are still breastfeeding and this suits both you and your baby and you are happy then of course you can continue.  However, as you have written asking how to wean them off there are various different things to try. For example, you could try to gently rouse your baby slightly after feeding to try and put them down more awake.  Or if you want to feed them but would like someone else to be able to do so, then you could try pumping and giving the breastmilk in a bottle, before again, trying to rouse them gently before putting them down. It might take a few days for everyone to get used to the new state of affairs!" Dr Philippa Kaye

Weight loss worries

Q: "I'm due my 10th baby and I always massively struggle with breastfeeding. With my 9th baby last year, I thought we were doing well. He seemed content after every feed, was sleeping well and showed no outward signs of being hungry. Then day 6 he was weighed, and we ended up in hospital as his weight had dropped too much. I stopped and put him on formula as soon as we got his blood levels back to normal as I was terrified he was being starved. I'd desperately like to breastfeed this time, but at the same time I'm scared to try because trying and failing has caused PND in me so many times." Kayleigh 

A: "I am so sorry that you have struggled so much, not just with feeding but with your mood and postnatal depression, and also with anxiety about feeding.  We are all aware of the huge benefits of breast milk, to both mum and baby, but we are lucky to live in a time when formula milk, clean water and the ability to sterilise bottles are all available.  As a doctor, I feel that the phrase ‘breast is best’, is not helpful to women, rather that we should move to ‘fed is best’.

"What matters most is that baby is fed, and that both you and baby are happy.  Breastfeeding which leads to postnatal depression can affect both you as a parent and your baby.  If you want to try feeding then try some of the tips above but I imagine after trying 9 times you may have read something similar before! Hopefully there will be breastfeeding support available, not just in your local hospital or birthing unit, but also in your local community, for example breastfeeding cafés, where you can get one to one support and help, not just for the physical action of breastfeeding but for the emotions that go with it.

"And remember, however you feed your baby, you are still feeding them, which is the most important thing.  The huge amount of pressure put upon women to feed is not helpful for many and can cause real harm – please get the help that you need." Dr Philippa Kaye

Breastfeeding blues

Q: "How do you get over the grief of not being able to breastfeed?" Louise

A: "I am sorry that you have not had the breastfeeding experience that you wanted and that this is still affecting you.  It is really common to have difficulties breastfeeding and for people to feel real guilt and grief around not feeding.  The first thing to remember is that it isn’t your fault, and that you are doing your best as a parent, not matter how you feed your baby.

"However if you are still struggling with your grief around feeding weeks or months on after stopping, then I would recommend that you speak to your health visitor and GP.  How is your mood? Have you noticed that you are low or tearful, as perhaps there is a larger issue going on which needs to be addressed.  It may be helpful to consider some kind of talking therapy or other support to help manage your grief, so please see your doctor." Dr Philippa Kaye

Tongue tie troubles

Q: "I haven't been able to breastfeed as my baby is tongue tied and couldn't latch properly because of this. I spoke with my health visitor about being referred for this to be sorted, but was told because baby is eating fine from the bottle I'd have to go private as it was cosmetic. I'm worried that when I get to the weaning stage it may affect his speech. Any advice you could offer would be most welcome." Naomi

A: "The tongue is made up of muscle which is attached to the mouth. If a baby has a tongue tie, the skin which attaches the tongue to the floor of the mouth is short and tight. This means that the baby cannot move their tongue freely. These can affect feeding and if it does then they can be referred to have the tongue tie cut.

"You ask though if a tongue tie affects eating later in life as well as speech, but this is not common.  The tip of the tongue is used for making some sounds like ‘n’ or ‘t’, but not for many others such as ‘m’ or ‘b’.  If there are difficulties with speech a referral to a speech and language therapist can be helpful, but generally speech issues are not related to a tongue tie." Dr Philippa Kaye

Spice things up

Q: "I have read and been told that there is no need to avoid spicy food when breastfeeding. However, on the 2 occasions I have had very spicy food, my baby has been very uncomfortable those days (screaming without an obvious reason) and vomiting lots more than usual (suffers from reflux). I don’t want to try it out a 3rd time to see if the same happens, but I was wondering if there is evidence of others having experienced the same as me?" Shahada

A: "Breast milk is naturally creamy and has a sweet taste, from the natural milk sugar (lactose) and fat in breast milk.  However, the food you eat can affect the flavour of your breast milk, as can medications, alcohol and smoking. In fact, the food that you eat when you are breastfeeding may even affect your baby’s tastes and palate and preferences later in life!

There is no evidence that eating spicy food when you are breastfeeding causes harm to your baby.  In fact, getting used to lots of different flavours during breastfeeding may also help them have a wide palate later on.  Colic, is unfortunately common and we don’t know why it occurs, and is unlikely to be due to you eating spicy food and breastfeeding." Dr Philippa Kaye

When to wean

Q: "When will I know my baby is ready to self-wean? How do I stop feeding? And how is best to maintain an extended feeding journey but also have some time away occasionally? Is it possible to pump this late in a journey when you haven’t before?" Claire

A: "There are various signs that your child is beginning to self wean from breastfeeding, for example they are less interested in breastfeeding, they feed for shorter periods or are distracted and playing at the breast.  But the decision to wean from breastfeeding is not just about the baby but also about you and when you feel the time is right.

"You can try to stop feeding in various ways. By the age of one your child will also be eating solid food but will still be drinking lots of milk. You can try dropping one feed at a time and replacing it with milk (if they are over one, if they are under a year then formula milk is used), or making feeds shorter and topping up with milk.  Some people find that their baby naturally drops feeds as they replace them with food until they are feeding just first thing in the morning and last thing at night, or even just at night. And yes, you can start pumping at this point if you would prefer." Dr Philippa Kaye

Please note: this advice is not personalised or meant to replace individual advice given to you about your child by your doctor or medical team. As always, if you are concerned about your child’s health then please seek medical advice.

Pics: Getty

Read more:

• Mastitis and breastfeeding: signs, symptoms and how to treat it
• How – and when – to stop breastfeeding
• Mixed breast and bottle feeding: how to make it work

With the help of expert microbiologists Dr Sharad Kamble and Dr Helen Onyeaka, and expert bacteriologist Dr Zina Alfahl, we have the answers...

The takeaway expert advice

A dishwasher can clean baby bottles and feeding equipment but it cannot sterilise them.

So this means that, even if you use a dishwasher first:

• You will still need sterilise bottles, teats and other bottle-feeding equipment until your baby is 12 months old.
• You will need to sterilise your child's dummy until they are 6 months old.
• You don't need to sterilise weaning equipment (bowls, plates, spoons) if you're weaning your baby at the recommended age of 6 months but, if you're weaning your baby between 4 and 6 months, you'll need to sterilise weaning equipment until your baby is 6 months old.

Can I put baby bottles, rings and teats in the dishwasher?

Yes, you can put baby bottles in the dishwasher to clean them – instead of hand-washing them in hot, soapy water. But this will only clean them and sanitise them; it will not sterilise them.

"Dishwashers are useful for cleaning but they do not sterilise baby bottles," confirms Dr Sharad Kamble, a microbiologist at the University of Bradford and a member of Applied Microbiology International's Food Security Scientific Advisory Group.

So, until your child is 12 months old, you will need to sterilise all this bottle-feeding equipment after it's been in the dishwasher, either by using a steam steriliser, immersing them in a cold-water sterilising solution for at least 30 minutes, or by boiling them for at least 10 minutes.

Once your baby is 12 months old, and their immune system has developed enough to make them less susceptible to infection, you can skip the sterilising stage.

Why doesn't a dishwasher sterilise baby bottles?

To sterilise an item in hot water, it has to be boiled at 100°C for a minimum of 10 minutes.² The water in most dishwashers, even on a hot wash, doesn't actually reach this temperature.

"Dishwashers typically reach temperatures around 65.5°C to 70°C, with a rinse cycle up to 82°C, " says Dr Helen Onyeaka, an industrial microbiologist and associate professor in the department of chemical engineering at the University of Birmingham. "This is sufficient for sanitising but not for sterilisation."

And this is the key point: sanitising a baby bottle is not the same as sterilising it.

"Sanitisation reduces bacteria to a safe level but it does not eradicate them all," says Dr Onyeaka. "Sterilisation aims to eliminate all forms of bacteria and microorganisms."

"Microbes can grow very quickly on tiny traces of milk left in bottles," adds Dr Sharad, "and certain kinds of bacterial spores are prone to surviving dishwasher cycles. The sterilisation process, however, kills all live forms of micro-organisms— including the spores."

Can I put baby weaning bowls and spoons in the dishwasher?

Yes – and assuming that your weaning baby is 6 months or older, you don't need to sterilise weaning bowls and spoons afterwards.

However, if, on the advice of your health visitor or GP, you are weaning early (between 4 and 6 months), you will need to sterilise all weaning equipment after it's been in the dishwasher until your baby is 6 months old.

Why is the age limit different for sterilising bottles than it is for weaning equipment and dummies?

First of all, there are few 'hiding places' for microbes on weaning equipment. "Microbes can easily be washed off spoons and bowls as, compared to bottles and particularly teats, there are no difficult-to-reach surfaces where bacterial spores can lurk," say Dr Sharad.

And weaning bowls and spoons don't have as much or as frequent 'mouth contact' with your baby as bottles do.

"Bottles, heavily used for feeding during the first year, pose a higher risk of bacterial contamination," says Dr Zina Alfahl, postdoctoral researcher in bacteriology at the University of Galway. "That's because they have direct and prolonged contact with your baby's mouth and with the milk."

"Weaning equipment encounters less oral contact and has reduced risk of contamination from food, making frequent sterilisation less necessary."

Please note: The NHS advice on sterilising baby bottles that's given to UK parents – and explained here – is different to the advice to US parents by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.

Additional research by Gabrielle Nathan. Pic: Getty.

References

<sup>1. Sterilising baby bottles. NHS online
2. Steam sterilisation. Infection Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.</sup>

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• Best sterilisers
• Games to play with your 6 to 12 month old
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In a nutshell: Paracetamol¹ and ibuprofen² are generally considered safe to take as a painkiller when you are breastfeeding. If you take paracetamol or ibuprofen, the drug will pass into your breastmilk but in such tiny quantities that neither are likely to harm your baby.

It's not recommended to take aspirin³ or codeine⁴ when you are breastfeeding – and you should always check with your doctor first if you're thinking of taking any other pain-relieving medication.

Can I take paracetamol if I'm breastfeeding?

Yes¹. In fact, says Gail Johnson, a midwife educator and Honorary Fellow of the Royal College of Midwives, paracetamol has long been considered the "painkiller of choice for breastfeeding mothers".

That said, it is wise, says expert family GP Dr Philippa Kaye, to take it only for the shortest time possible and to stick carefully to the recommended dose on the packet – which is no more than 2 500mg tablets, 4 times in 24 hours (a maximum of 8 tablets in 24 hours).

The paracetamol will pass into your breastmilk but in tiny amounts. It has been used for pain relief by breastfeeding mothers for many years without any effect on their children.

Do be careful, though, to check your packet to make sure it's 'straight' paracetamol, not paracetamol combined with codeine (often called co-codamol or Solpadeine). Codeine is not suitable to take when you're breastfeeding.⁴

You should also get advice from your health visitor, midwife or doctor before taking paracetamol if your breastfeeding baby:

• was born prematurely
• had a low birthweight
• has a medical condition

It’s worth noting, too, says Dr Philippa, that some paracetamol tablets also include caffeine (to help deliver the pain relief more effectively⁵) and it's better to avoid these ones if you can.

"If you drink coffee or tea, you are already delivering small amounts of caffeine to your baby," she says. "These small amounts are unlikely to do your baby any harm but, since paracetamol tablets without caffeine will still work, choosing those ones is an easy way to avoid extra amounts of caffeine getting into your breastmilk."

Can I take ibuprofen if I'm breastfeeding?

Yes² you can take ibuprofen tablets or use ibuprofen gel on your skin – although, says Dr Philippa, the same caution applies here as it would if you weren't breastfeeding, meaning you should check with your GP first if you have:

• a stomach ulcer
• asthma that gets worse if you take ibuprofen
• liver or kidney problems
• heart disease
• Crohn's disease
• a health condition that puts you at increased risk of bleeding
• chickenpox or shingles

Dr Philippa also recommends that, if you do take ibuprofen, you only taken it for the shortest time possible and you stick carefully to the recommended dose on the packet – which is no more than 2 200mg tablets 3 times a day, with 6 to 8 hours in between doses (a maximum of 1200mg in 24 hours).

The ibuprofen will pass into your breastmilk but in tiny amounts that are unlikely to cause any side effects for your baby. Many breastfeeding mothers have used it for pain relief without any problems but, of course, if you notice your baby is not feeding as well as usual or you have any other concerns, you should talk to your midwife or GP.

As with paracetamol, you should get advice from your health visitor, midwife or doctor before taking ibuprofen if your breastfeeding baby:

• was born prematurely
• had a low birthweight
• has a medical condition

It's worth knowing, too, that – very confusingly – the instructions on some ibuprofen packets and/or on some of the leaflets inside, advise you to avoid taking it while breastfeeding or to seek medical advice before you do. The NHS advice is clear that it's safe (subject to the checks we've outlined above) but do check with your pharmacist if you feel in need of extra reassurance.

Can I take aspirin if I'm breastfeeding?

No³. "It is recommended that you avoid aspirin during breastfeeding," says Dr Philippa. "This is because small amounts of aspirin may pass into your breastmilk and, although they're unlikely to cause any harm to your baby, there is a known possible link between aspirin and a rare liver disorder called Reye's syndrome."

Can I take codeine if I'm breastfeeding?

No⁴. You should not take codeine if you are breastfeeding. That's because if you do, small amounts of codeine pass into your breastmilk and can potentially cause breathing problems for your baby and/or make them drowsy.

"It may also be that this general advice about codeine⁴ changes in the future," says Dr Philippa, "as a study published in March 2023 in the British Medical Journal⁶ suggest that babies of women who were prescribed an opioid after delivery were no more likely to be admitted into hospital in the first 30 days after delivery than those who were not.

"But further studies are needed and it's important that, for now, that we all follow the current advice."

What about other painkillers?

"If you’re thinking of taking any medication other than paracetamol or ibuprofen while breastfeeding," says Dr Philippa, "you really should ask your doctor about it first.

"This doesn’t mean that you should just put up with being in pain, of course: many women with small babies will require more pain relief than paracetamol, especially if they have had a Caesarean section. If this is the case for you, your hospital doctor, your midwife or you GP are best placed to decide what's best for you to take.

"You may find, for example, that your doctor prescribes you an opioid medication such as dihydrocodeine. Now, we've seen (above) that codeine is not recommended during breastfeeding due to concerns that small amounts of it can pass into your milk and make your baby drowsy. Dihydrocodeine is related to codeine but, in certain circumstances, it can be prescribed by a doctor to a breastfeeding mother at the lowest effective dose."

References:

<sup>1. Pregnancy, breastfeeding and fertility while taking paracetamol for adults. NHS Online
2. Pregnancy, breastfeeding and fertility while taking ibuprofen. NHS Online
3. Pregnancy, breastfeeding and fertility while taking low-dose aspirin. NHS Online
4. Pregnancy, breastfeeding and fertility while taking codeine. NHS Online
5. Caffeine as an analgesis adjuvant for acute pain in adults. Derry CJ et al. Cochrane, 11 December 2014
6. Maternal opioid treatment after delivery and risk of adverse infant outcomes: population based cohort study. Zipursky et al. BMJ 2023;380:e074005 (Published 15 March 2023)</sup>

Pic: Getty Images

Read more:

• How to breastfeed your newborn baby
• Why does it hurt when I breastfeed? How can I ease the pain?
• How do I get my breastfeeding baby to latch on properly?
• Is it safe to vape when I'm breastfeeding?

Here's what you need to know about using gripe water for newborns and babies...

Is gripe water safe for newborns?

Generally, gripe water should not be given to a baby who is less than 1 month old. There are various different brands of grips water available, so always be sure to check the instructions and see what the age restrictions are.

Regardless of the age of your baby, you should avoid any gripe-water preparation that contains alcohol or sugar.

And you should also not use gripe water if your child:

• is allergic to any of the ingredients
• suffers from kidney problems

At what age can a baby have gripe water?

It is recommended that babies under the age of 6 months old are not given anything other than breast milk or formula milk¹. But some gripe-water preparations state they are suitable for treating colic in a baby over the age of 1 month.

What is gripe water? What's in it?

Gripe water is a mixture containing dill seed oil. It was first made in the 1850s by an English pharmacist William Woodward who used it for treating "fen fever". The mixture was soon adopted by doctors for soothing fretful babies.

Woodward's original mix combined dill seed oil with alcohol, bicarbonate of soda, sugar and water.

Today, Woodward's Gripe Water no longer contains alcohol or sugar but mainly just bicarbonate of soda and dill seed oil. Other brands of gripe water may contain additional ingredients, such as camomile or peppermint.

What do you use gripe water for? Does it work?

Gripe water is often used to ease trapped wind and colic. The theory is that it breaks down the trapped air bubbles that cause wind and which many believed to be the cause of colic.

However, the cause of actually colic not known – and there is no evidence to suggest that gripe water is effective or makes a significant difference to colic. One study of 355 babies in India² , in fact, suggests that, although almost two-thirds of parents in the study were giving gripe water to their baby, it didn't seem to have any effect on their colic – and in some cases may have been associated with constipation.

Does gripe water have any side effects?

It doesn't have any known side effects but, if your baby gets any unusual symptoms while taking gripe water, take them to see your GP as soon as possible.

How do I give gripe water to my baby?

It's usually administered with a dropper. If you do decided to give gripe water to your baby (and they are over 1 month old), then first follow the directions on the box/bottle to make sure you understand what the correct dose is.

Then simple fill the dropper up with the recommended dose of gripe water (as directed on the packet), and let your baby suck it out or you can squeeze it into their mouth or put it into their formula or expressed breastmilk if you are bottle-feeding.

When should I give gripe water to my baby?

As there isn't any clear evidence that gripe water is effective, there isn’t a 'should' as such.  However, if you do give gripe water to your baby, some brands recommend giving it 30 minutes after a feed.

Can I put gripe water in formula milk?

Depending on the brand, you may be able to mix with formula or expressed breast milk. Again, check the specific instructions on the brand of gripe water you buy.

Can I put gripe water on a dummy?

Putting gripe water on a dummy means that you will not know if the baby has taken the dosage suggested by the manufacturer. Instead, it's better to follow the instructions on the box.

Is Woodward's the only type of gripe water?

No, there are various brands of gripe water available to buy in pharmacies. Always check with a pharmacist that the gripe water you choose is suitable for babies and doesn't include alcohol or sugar.

Is gripe water different to Colief, Infacol and other anti-gas remedies?

Yes, gripe water is different to other anti-colic remedies.

Infacol and other brands such as Dentinox Colic Drios contain simeticone, which is thought to work by combining small gas bubbles together into larger bubbles, which are easier to pass by burping or farting. It is not absorbed into the body, but there is little evidence that it is effective at treating colic.

Colief is a different medication which aims to break down lactose in the milk, in case a temporary lactose intolerance is causing symptoms.

Please note that medications aimed to help bloating and indigestion in adults should not be given to babies.

What else can I try to help with colic?

Although colic does tend to resolve itself on its own, often at around 4 months, it can be extremely distressing as a parent. I know that 4 months can feel like an eternity when you have a crying and distressed 3-week-old in your arms!

Some things that can help include:

• Taking turns holding your baby or, if you are on your own, putting the baby down somewhere safe for a few minutes to look after your own needs.
• Rocking or walking while you're holding your baby – babies seem to like gentle motion.
• A warm bath for your baby can also help.
• Massaging your baby's tummy in a clockwise direction.
• Feeding your baby in an upright position and winding them carefully afterwards

You may hear about other other remedies, including cranial osteopathy, herbal supplements and, if you are breastfeeding, changing your diet. There is little evidence for the effectiveness of any of these – and you should not change your diet or take herbal remedies if you are breastfeeding without discussing it through with a doctor first.

As always, if you are concerned about your baby's health please seek the advice of a healthcare professional.

Last reviewed: July 2023. Please note: Dr Philippa does not specifically recommend or endorse any brand of over-the-counter medicine. This advice is not personalised or meant to replace individual advice given to you by your doctor or medical team. 

References:

<sup>1. Evidence for the ten steps to successful breastfeeding. Geneva: World Health Organization/CHD/98.9; 1998. pp. 48–61
2. Jain K, Gunasekaran D, Venkatesh C, Soundararajan P. Gripe Water Administration in Infants 1-6 months of Age-A Cross-sectional Study. J Clin Diagn Res. 2015 Nov;9(11):SC06-8. doi: 10.7860/JCDR/2015/13727.6738. Epub 2015 Nov 1. PMID: 26673749; PMCID: PMC4668494.</sup>

Pic: Getty Images

Read more:

• Baby colic – all you need to know
• Not coping as a new mum? Asking for help is the bravest thing you can do
• Baby poo : what's normal and what's not – in charts and pictures

How does vaping affect breastmilk?

There haven't been any studies on the long-term effects on a breastfeeding baby of a mother who vapes. But we do know that there's nicotine in almost all e-cigs, which will be absorbed into your bloodstream when you vape, and we also know from studies on regular cigarette smoking¹ that absorbed nicotine is present in breastmilk and can affect your baby – by disrupting their sleep patterns, for example.

Nicotine in your bloodstream is also known to affect both the supply and the composition of your breastmilk².

And nicotine is not the only potential issue: e-cigs also contain ingredients like glycerol, propylene gylcol and flavourings, all which can pass into your bloodstream when inhaled. There have been studies³ that suggest that, once in your bloodstream, many of these flavourings may trigger an inflammatory response in your white blood cells. But we really can't say for sure yet whether or not the flavourings have any specific impact on breastmilk.

Despite all of this, it's important to know that current NHS advice is that, if you do choose to use an e-cigarette to help you quit smoking, it's still better to carry on breastfeeding as it's thought that the overall benefits to your baby of breastfeeding outweigh any potential harm from vaping⁴.

Is vaping better than smoking if you're breastfeeding?

Yes – if vaping is helping you quit smoking.

It is a better option than smoking but, as we've seen, vaping is still not a safe or healthy lifestyle choice – because e-cigs still contain nicotine, and their liquid and vapour can contain toxic chemicals.

If you're looking to give up smoking, the NHS currently advises new parents to use nicotine replacement patches or gums (NRT), rather than vapes. That's because we currently know more about the safety and risks of NRT, while as yet there are many unanswered questions about the safety of e-cigarettes.

If I do vape, what can I do to minimise the risk to my baby?

If you are going to vape when breastfeeding, do make sure you vape after you've done a feed, so you can leave a big gap between your last vape and your next breastfeed. This will help you ensure that there's the least possible amount of nicotine in your breastmilk by the time your baby needs to feed.

It’s also wise to make sure you vape outdoors, and away from your baby. Although you only exhale tiny amounts of nicotine and other toxins when you vape, we don't know enough yet about the long-term effect on babies of passive vaping.

Dr Philippa also offers the reminder that, when it comes to pregnancy, "vaping is still not considered safe; quitting entirely is still the best option". So if you are hoping / planning to have another child, you should aim to give up completely before you get pregnant again if you can.

Pics: Getty 

References

<sup>1. Breastfeeding and Smoking: Short-term Effects on Infant Feeding and Sleep. Menella et al, Pediatrics 2007 Sep; 120)(3): 497-502.
2. Tobacco smoking and breastfeeding: effect on the lactation process, breast milk composition and infant development. A critical review. Napierala et al. Environmental Research 2016;151;321 to 338.
3. Inflammatory and Oxidative Responses Induced by Exposure to Commonly Used e-Cigarette Flavoring Chemicals and Flavored e-Liquids without Nicotine, Thivanka Muthumalage et al, Front. Physiol., 11 January 2018. DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.01130
4. Breastfeeding and Smoking. NHS Online</sup>

Read more:

• Is vaping safe in pregnancy?
• Brilliant breastfeeding positions for newborns – with pics
• How to get your newborn to latch on properly – with step-by-step pics

“We don’t know yet if there are any adverse health effects from exposure to microplastics,” explains Professor John Boland of Trinity College, Dublin, one of the lead authors of the report. “There haven’t been any definitive studies in terms of health implications,” Professor Boland told BBC Radio 4’s Today programme. “We didn’t want to unduly alarm parents but were rather concerned when we saw these numbers.”

Why are baby bottles a particular problem?

The issue with baby bottles is that the advised method of making a sterilised bottle of milk increases the quantity of microplastics released. It’s a combination of two factors:

• High temperatures required for sterilisation
• Shaking bottles to mix the formula in

It’s the level of microplastics released by baby bottles that’s the particular concern.

We all consume microplastics on a daily basis from our food and drink. A 2019 World Health Organisation (WHO) report showed that microplastics are in our drinking water and that adults are consuming around 300-600 microplastics a day. But the researchers found that baby bottles could shed millions of microplastics a day.

Therefore, they suggest a method of preparing baby bottles that will reduce the risk of microplastic release.

What can I do to reduce microplastic exposure when using baby bottles?

This involves some additional steps into the normal bottle-making process, which Professor Boland states will dramatically reduce the level of microplastics released. Please note, sterilisation is still a crucial part of the process and shouldn’t be avoided.

1. Follow WHO advice to sterilise your baby bottles as usual
2. NEW If using baby formula, use a sterilised NON-PLASTIC container to prepare it rather than a plastic bottle. Important - still use water heated to at least 70°C to make sure you kill any bugs in the powder
3. NEW If using baby formula, shake the powder mixture gently to mix it into the water. If your non-plastic container doesn't have a lid, stir gently with a sterilised metal spoon
4. NEW Prepare some additional sterilised water using a NON-PLASTIC container to heat it. Let it cool
5. NEW Gently rinse 3 times the sterilised bottle with this additional cool sterilised water before pouring in the prepared fomula or expressed milk. This will help to remove the loose microplastics

Non-plastic containers can include stainless steel, glass bottles or a ceramic container. Remember - when using non-plastic containers, these can be very hot after sterilisation. For containers that have not been in contact with milk or milk powder, you can sterilise these by washing them thoroughly at a high temperature and immersing them in boiling water.

Does this affect all baby bottles?

No, but it is most. The study found that bottles made from polypropylene are the ones that shed microplastics. However, polypropylene is one of the most common types of plastic and used in 82% of baby bottles. Glass bottles don’t contain polypropylene and so do not release microplastics.

Should I change to glass bottles?

In the UK, we don’t have high usage of glass bottles, although they are available to buy. In other countries, such as China, glass bottles are frequently used. There are pros and cons to using glass bottles. Obviously, there isn’t the risk of microplastic particles being released. On the downside, they’re heavy, less available and can potentially break when dropped.

What about silicone or stainless steel bottles?

There’s limited research on silicone and stainless steel bottles, particularly around potential leaching when using high temperature liquids, such as near boiling water. We’ll be looking into this further.

Should I stop bottlefeeding?

If you're able to breastfeed or part-breastfeed, then your baby won't be exposed to microplastics from bottles (remember, if you're expressing, you need to gently rinse out your sterilised bottles - Step 5 above). This is an additional upside to other benefits of breastfeeding.

What if I’m using expressed milk rather than formula milk?

This issue concerns polypropylene bottles rather than formula milk. Using your own milk means you don’t have to shake it, but you do still need to sterilise your bottles, so the new method will still reduce the microplastics level.

What about using plastic containers for solid baby food?

The study showed that microplastics are released at a much higher level when plastic is exposed to a high temperature, so if you’re heating food in a microwave, it’s always best to use non-plastic containers.

Read more...

• What to sterilise for your baby - and when can you stop?
• Best breastfeeding positions for your baby - with pictures
• Is my baby having a growth spurt?

¹Li, D., Shi, Y., Yang, L. et al. Microplastic release from the degradation of polypropylene feeding bottles during infant formula preparation. Nat Food (2020)

It's probably worth shopping around and trying smaller shops if you can't find it in your usual supermarket. Do beware of anything you read which says you can get free formula milk during this time, though: it's almost certainly a scam.

What are the big companies saying about the supply of formula milk?

Formula milk companies including Cow & Gate and Aptamil have addressed the concerns of parents on the matter of formula milk shortages during the coronavirus outbreak directly on their websites, and have dedicated sections addressing the situation during these unusual times.

While Cow & Gate acknowledges that some retailers (especially larger ones) are experiencing shortages, they say that they're still producing and sending out regular (usually daily) supplies of formula milk but that, yes, you might need to visit smaller shops or pharmacies to find stock.

Cow & Gate states: "At the moment we have good supplies of our formula products and we are sending out regular, daily supplies to all retailers.

"So you should be able to find your formula products when shelves are replenished, although you may need to try more than one store or use online retailers’ local stock checking facility. We also suggest trying local pharmacies and independent stores as they have lower footfall."

Aptamil says something very similar adding: "Behind the scenes, we are working hard with retailers to ensure that supplies get to store as fast as we can, and where possible, we are increasing production of our milks so that we can maintain good supplies."

Can I get formula milk for free during the coronavirus outbreak?

No. Despite stories you might read on social media that claim otherwise, you can't get formula milk for free either from your GP or by ringing the formula-milk company helplines. Yahoo News says that NHS 111 has confirmed that any claims people can get formula milk for free are a hoax.

And Cow & Gate states on its website: "Due to legal restrictions, we must not send out free supplies in the UK."

Read more...

• Coronavirus and pregnancy: everything you need to know
• Should my child get the chickenpox vaccine?
• How to sterilise bottles the right way

How many calories does breastfeeding burn?

It’s generally accepted that breastfeeding burns around 400 to 500 calories per day and that this is how much extra you’ll need when breastfeeding - as Dr Philippa says: "During breastfeeding you need to have 500kcal a day extra."

Though she also notes: "However, you have been laying down fat during pregnancy to help you come up with this extra energy."

The 400 to 500-calories stat is backed up by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, too, who advise that breastfeeding women need 450 to 500 extra calories when breastfeeding - around 2,500 a day in total, and certainly not less than 1,800.

Is it safe to diet when breastfeeding?

If you’re worried about whether dieting while breastfeeding will affect the quality  and / or quantity of your milk and, in turn, your baby  – it really depends on how much weight you’re losing.

A 1998 study from the University of California, looking at the effects of restricted calories during breastfeeding, showed that losing 2kg or less per month had no adverse effects on milk composition or volume ¹, as long as the mum wasn’t undernourished and was feeding her baby on demand.

International board certified lactation consultant Kelly Bonyata, founder of parenting / breastfeeding website Kellymom, sites this stat, and La Leche League says it’s safe to lose 1lb a week - based figures in a book, Counseling The Nursing Mother, by IBCLCs  Judith Lauwers and Anna Swisher.

Kelly also advises that any sudden weight loss can lead to a drop in milk supply, though.

How soon can I start dieting if I’m breastfeeding?

Most advice we’ve seen from those in the know - including La Leche League GB and Kellymom - says you should wait until around 6 to 8 weeks, when your milk supply is established, before thinking of dieting.

Above all things, it’s important to give yourself time to heal from birth, and to put your happiness first and the wellbeing of your baby before anything else. And if you really do want to diet, don’t be too harsh on yourself. As Dr Philippa advises:

Can I join Slimming World or Weight Watchers when breastfeeding?

We know some of the members of our MadeForMums community do use diets like Weight Watchers and Slimming World when breastfeeding.

And, from what we can gather, these kinds of programmes say you can take part in them if you’re breastfeeding and they should tailor their systems if they know you are doing so - just be sure to tell them if you are.

Cheri, a member of our MadeForMums community and a former Weight Watchers leader says: "I used to do Weight Watchers, worked better for me than Slimming World, but we're all different.

"Weight Watchers is a counting points system, and you get extra points per day for breastfeeding - the number depends if you are exclusively or mix feeding."

We would say though, based on what Dr Philippa’s advised, it might be worth checking in with your GP before starting such a diet if you’re breastfeeding.

Will breastfeeding alone help me lose weight?

As we’ve seen, you burn around 500 calories while breastfeeding, and there is some evidence that breastfeeding can help you lose weight.

A 2014 study, looking at the effects of breastfeeding on postpartum weight loss among US women ², suggested:

"Women who breastfed exclusively for at least 3 months had a 1.3-pound… greater weight loss at 6 months postpartum, relative to those who did not breastfed or breastfed non-exclusively.

"At 9 months postpartum, exclusive breastfeeding for at least 3 months led to a 3.7-pound… greater postpartum weight loss, relative to non-exclusive or no breastfeeding.”

And Dr Philippa comments: "If you are eating a healthy diet, breastfeeding can actually help you lose weight."

But it’s not guaranteed that the extra calories you use when breastfeeding will necessarily mean the weight falls off. As Kelly, a member of our MadeForMums community, found: "I was expecting this huge weight loss that everyone goes on about...

"I've lost a stone when R was born then bopped up & down 5lb!! I joined Slimming World and lost nothing, not sure if I was eating too much?"

And Hannah, also a member of our MadeForMums community, found the same, saying: "Honestly, I feel like I haven't lost any weight breastfeeding. Others say differently.

"When I did start trying to calorie count and I did start losing weight it actually affected my milk supply which was very stressful.

"So I went back to eating "normally" again and my milk supply went back to normal - I have been a lot happier since."

As we see from these mums, weight loss isn’t inevitable when breastfeeding.

When you’re breastfeeding, you may find you’re exhausted through disrupted sleep, and so jump at a sugary snack more readily than you usually would.

Additionally, if you have a young baby to look after you may possibly (though not necessarily) find yourself leading a more sedentary, stay-at-home life - all of which could mean the weight doesn’t necessarily fall off quickly.

Diet while breastfeeding: what should you eat? 

The most important thing to remember when you’re breastfeeding is that you need to have a balanced diet – the NHS has guidelines on what to eat which are basically the same as for adults generally – see their guidelines for a health breastfeeding diet if you’re unsure.

Exercising when breastfeeding

Another way to help lose weight if you want to, other than dieting, is to exercise. Even if you’ve had a c-section, getting up and about is a good idea, though in the first week or so this should mean simply gentle walks and not going too far.

Whether you had a c-section or a vaginal birth you might find that your post-partum bleeding increases if you overdo it -  so simply slow down and take it easy again for a few weeks.

Your 6-week check-up is a good point at which to see how your body is doing and if you are ready for formal exercise yet. At first try walking.

Discuss gym exercising with your doctor before you go back to anything more strenuous as she will be aware of your own birth experience and body state.

While you are breastfeeding, keeping up your liquids is important all the time, so make especially sure that you are drinking enough water when exercising.

If you get breast problems like mastitis make sure you stop doing any exercising which might exacerbate the problem. Consult your doctor or health visitor, or your gym instructor if you’re not sure.

Pics: Getty

References

^{1. Effects of Maternal Caloric Restriction and Exercise during Lactation, The Journal of Nutrition, Volume 128, Issue 2, February 199, Katherine G. Dewey et al. DOI: 10.1093/jn/128.2.386S}

^{2. Effects of breastfeeding on postpartum weight loss among U.S. women, Prev Med, 2014 Dec, Marian P. Jarlenski et al.}

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